Discourse

Frame

Groups, movements

manifest destiny

(Puritan origins in 17th century; 19th century America; late 20th wise use)

Nature is to be used; nature is abundant; humans are entitled to use nature for their needs

Citizens’ Alliance for Property Rights; Center for the defense of free enterprise

conservationism
(19th century America, German forestry roots)

Nature can be sustainably managed by technical professionals; utilitarianism

Izaak Walton League

preservationism
(19th century America, late 20th century renaissance)

Wilderness and wildlife are essential to human well-being; natural systems often require protection from human use, abuse

Nature conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, Sierra Club

ecocentrism
(1960s in USA)

Humans and ecosystems are interconnected

NRDC; Population Connection; Friends of the Earth; Worldwatch

political ecology
(1970s, 1980s)

Politics and economics create environmental problems; treadmill of production; global inequalities in terms of nature and exploitation; ‘think globally, act locally’

Earth Summits; Indigenous Peoples’ / Env. Justice Movements;  Greenpeace; 350.org

deep ecology
(1970s-80s)

Humans endanger nature; All life has intrinsic value; Stress decreasing human impact on the earth

PETA; Rainforest Action Network; EarthFirst!

ecofeminism
(early 1980s)

Ecosystem abuse rooted in androcentric concepts, institutions

WEDO; ecofem